Tempeh

Tempeh
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	803 kJ (192 kcal)
Carbohydrates	7.64 g
Fat	10.80 g
Protein	20.29 g
Vitamins
Vitamins and minerals
Vitamins	Quantity %DV†
Thiamine (B1)	7% 0.078 mg
Riboflavin (B2)	28% 0.358 mg
Niacin (B3)	17% 2.640 mg
Vitamin B6	13% 0.215 mg
Folate (B9)	6% 24 μg
Vitamin B12	3% 0.08 μg
Minerals	Quantity %DV†
Calcium	9% 111 mg
Iron	15% 2.7 mg
Magnesium	19% 81 mg
Manganese	57% 1.3 mg
Phosphorus	21% 266 mg
Potassium	14% 412 mg
Sodium	0% 9 mg
Zinc	10% 1.14 mg
Other constituents	Quantity
Water	60 g
	Full Link to USDA Database entry
	†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.

Tempe or tempeh (/ˈtɛmpeɪ/; Javanese: ꦠꦺꦩ꧀ꦥꦺ, romanized: témpé, Javanese pronunciation: [tempe]) is a traditional Indonesian food made from fermented soybeans.^[1] It is made by a natural culturing and controlled fermentation process that binds soybeans into a cake form.^[2] A fungus, Rhizopus oligosporus or Rhizopus oryzae, is used in the fermentation process and is also known as tempeh starter.

It is especially popular on the island of Java, where it is a staple source of protein. Like tofu, tempeh is made from soybeans, but it is a whole-soybean product with different nutritional characteristics and textural qualities. Tempeh's fermentation process and its retention of the whole bean give it a higher content of protein, dietary fiber, and vitamins. It has a firm texture and an earthy flavor, which becomes more pronounced as it ages.^[3]^[4]

Etymology

The term tempe is thought to be derived from the Old Javanese tumpi, a whitish food made of fried batter made from sago or rice flour which resembles rempeyek.^[5] The historian Denys Lombard also suggests that it could be linked to a later term tape or tapai which means 'fermentation'.^[6]

In the western world, tempeh is the most common spelling. This is done to prevent readers from incorrectly pronouncing the word as "temp". The first known usage of this spelling is in an 1896 German article. Other spellings, such as témpé, were also used, but tempeh has become the standard spelling in English since the 1960s.^[7]

History

Tempeh originated in Indonesia, according to historical evidence, tempeh was first made in Bayat, Klaten, Central Java, and was commonly consumed around 1700.

The invention of tempeh seems to have arisen through the serendipitous introduction to stored soybeans of the fungus, which is crucial in tempeh's fermentation. This fungus grows on teakwood and sea hibiscus leaves, which native Javanese people often used (and still do) as food wrappings. In fact, in traditional tempeh making, an usar (a mycelium-filled leaf) is used, instead of store-bought ragi.^[8]

The type of soybean first used to make tempeh was the black soybean, which was a native plant.^[9] This later changed with the importation of white or yellow soybeans and the rise of the tofu industry on the island.^[10]

Debate over origins

Murdijati Gardjito, a food historian at Gadjah Mada University, argued that tempeh was made by native Javanese people and that its preparation predates the introduction of Chinese-style tofu products.^[11] Some ancient texts mention tempe dhele, old Javanese for 'native soybean tempeh'; dhele was used to refer to the native soybean variety. White soybeans that are used to make most tempe dhele today used to be called dhele putih ('white soybeans'), and were only available in Java centuries later. Mary Astuti, a food historian at Gadjah Mada University specializing in tempeh, argued that the native variety of soybean had been grown before the Chinese arrived in the region.^[6]

Sri Tandjung noted that Javanese had been eating cooked (native black) soybeans since the 12th century. By the 16th or the 19th century, depending on which period of time the writer of Serat Centhini referred to, Javanese people had mastered the art of cooking with tempeh, when it was not only eaten as is, but converted into different types of dishes, showing a full understanding and mastery of the food product.^[11]

Gardjito noted that Javanese noble families rarely wrote about tempeh in ancient texts because it had never been a part of royal cuisine, but rather a staple food of the lower classes.^[11]

Indonesian historian, Ong Hok Ham, suggests that tempeh might have been produced as a byproduct of tahu, the Indonesian word for tofu. He argued that the two food products are made of the same ingredient and that genetically speaking, soybeans are from China, though the specific variety was never mentioned. Food journalist, Andreas Maryoto. supported this idea, saying that tempeh might have been accidentally produced as the by-product of the tofu industry in Java in the 17th century, as discarded soybeans caught the spores of a whitish fungus that was found to be edible.^[6]

However, tahu was (and is still) made of white soybeans (Glycine max, native to Japan and China), as opposed to the earliest version of tempe dhele that was made of native black soybeans (Glycine soja).^[9]^[6]

Tahu (tofu) made its way to Kediri in the 13th century and was consumed by the Mongolians who arrived in Java. Later, it was popular only among the rich (the complex production process and imported white soybeans led to its high price). Around the 17th or 19th century, tahu became available to everyone.^[10]

Tempeh later began to be made with white soybeans, leading to the decreased use of its native black variety. Black soybeans have been replaced by other commodity plants since. The original version of tempe dhele has been forgotten as tahu has become the common people's food, and dependence on imported white soybeans grows.^[12]

Production

Tempeh begins with whole soybeans, which are softened by soaking, dehulled, then partly cooked. Specialty tempeh may be made from other types of beans, wheat, or may include a mixture of beans and whole grains.^[13] Adding vinegar during soybeans soaking process had also been reported in tempeh industries and it had been found to influence the sensory nature of the final product.^[14]

The principal step in making tempeh is the fermentation of soybeans which undergo inoculation with Rhizopus spp. molds, a type of filamentous fungus most widely used for the production of tempeh. A fermentation starter containing the spores of fungus Rhizopus oligosporus or Rhizopus oryzae is mixed in.^[15] The beans are spread into a thin layer and are allowed to ferment for 24 to 36 hours at a temperature around 30°C (86°F). The soybeans have to cool down to allow spore germination and abundant growth of mycelium. Later, the temperature of the beans will naturally rise and rapid mold growth happens for around 4 hours. As mold growth declines, the soybeans should be bound into a solid mass by the mycelium. In good tempeh, the beans are knitted together by a mat of white mycelium. Typically, tempeh is harvested after 48 hours of fermentation with its distinguishable whitish color, firm texture, and nutty flavor. Extended fermentation time results in an increase in pH and undesirable color darkening in the tempeh.^[16]

Tempeh-making process using tempeh bag of sealed polyethylene pouch, soybeans prior to fermentation, after fermentation, and result

During the fermentation process, optimal time of fermentation, temperature, oxygen, humidity, and pH levels are required to encourage the growth of the Rhizopus mold, while discouraging the growth of undesired microorganisms.^[17] The pH level should be kept around 3-5 by adding a mild acidulant such as vinegar, lactic acid, or acetic acid, thereby favoring mold growth and restricting the growth of spoilage microorganisms.^[18] Oxygen is required for Rhizopus spp. growth, but should be maintained at low levels to prevent the production of undesired microorganisms. Under conditions of lower temperature, or higher ventilation, gray or black patches of spores may form on the surface—this is not harmful, and should not affect the flavor or quality of the tempeh.^[19] This sporulation is normal on fully mature tempeh. A mild ammonia smell may accompany good tempeh as it ferments, but it should not be overpowering.

Traditional tempeh is often produced in Indonesia using Hibiscus tiliaceus leaves. The undersides of the leaves are covered in downy hairs (known technically as trichomes) to which the mold Rhizopus oligosporus can be found adhering in the wild. Soybeans are pressed into the leaf, and stored. Fermentation occurs resulting in tempeh.^[13] In particular, the tempeh undergoes salt-free aerobic fermentation.^[20]

Tempeh made with traditional inoculation methods are also more likely to include molds of other species including Rhizopus arrhizus and Rhizopus delemar which may outcompete Rhizopus oligosporus as the dominant mold. This results in white woolly appearance and more pleasant aroma compared with tempeh made with commercial starter containing only Rhizopus oligosporus. Famously these variant tempeh are found in Malang and Purwokerto in the 1960s, because Malang is located in a cool plateau, and tempeh made with Rhizopus oligosporus resulted in less compact and more alcoholic-smelling tempeh, while Rhizopus arrhizus required lower optimum temperature which made it more ideal. However the widespread use of commercial starter resulted in most tempeh in Java only containing Rhizopus oligosporus, with few traditionally made tempeh outside Java still containing Rhizopus arrhizus and Rhizopus delemar.^[21]

Dry matter losses and yield

During the processing of soybeans to make tempeh there are inevitable losses of material due to the removal of the hulls and the leaching of soluble compounds during the soaking, washing and cooking stages. Hulls constitute about 8% of the dry beans and losses due to the leaching of soluble compounds equate to 12 - 17% of the dry beans. The oligosaccharides, stachyose, raffinose and sucrose, can constitute up to 50% of the soluble materials lost.^[22]^[23] During the fermentation there is some further loss of material due to respiration by the mold and the oxidation of compounds to carbon dioxide and water. Reported losses of dry matter during the fermentation range from 2.1 to 10%.^[22]^[23]^[24] Hence, the overall yield of tempeh is in the range of 72-78 g tempeh per 100 g soybeans on a dry matter basis. In practical terms, this means that 100 g dry soybeans (7-9% moisture content) will yield about 170 to 210 g fresh tempeh (61-64% moisture content).^[22]

Determining quality

Once tempeh is produced, it is divided into three categories based on its quality: good, unfinished, and inedible. Good tempeh includes beans that are bound into a firm, compact cake by a dense, uniform, white mycelium, which should permeate the entire cake; the beans should be barely visible. The odor of good tempeh should be pleasant, clean, subtly sweet or resemble the aroma of mushrooms. The entire tempeh should lift as a single, cohesive cake without crumbling when shaken gently. Unfinished tempeh has beans that are bound together loosely by a sparse white mycelium, hence it crumbles easily. Unfinished tempeh should be incubated longer unless it has been incubated more than eight hours past the recommended time. If it has been incubated for enough time and still remains unfinished, it should be discarded. Inedible tempeh has beans with foul odor, resembling strong ammonia or alcohol, indicating the development of undesirable bacteria due to excess moisture or overheating. Inedible tempeh cake is wet, slimy, and mushy with a collapsed structure. Its color is tan to brown and mold develops in sparse patches.^[18]

Packaging

Food grade wrapping paper and perforated polyethylene bags are the most suitable materials for packaging tempeh. They have demonstrated good retention of the quality of tempeh and extension of the shelf life of tempeh for three days compared to fresh tempeh. Appropriate packaging is important as it provides optimum oxygen supply and temperature for inoculation and fermentation to occur during processing.^[25] Tempeh is a perishable food and must be wrapped and placed into the refrigerator or freezer immediately after incubation or other processing steps such as blanching. In the refrigerator or freezer, stacking of tempeh should be minimized to prevent overheating and the undesirable, gradual continuation of fermentation, both of which shorten the storage life of tempeh. Even under cold temperature, tempeh continues to respire and undergo slow decomposition from microorganisms and its natural enzymes. Therefore, tempeh should be well cooled for at least two to five hours in a cooler before it undergoes further packaging.^[18] Tempeh packaged in perforated polyethylene bags is usually repacked inside another labeled, non-perforated bag for distribution, sale and easier labeling. If the tempeh is packaged in only one perforated bag, the label must be directly attached to the perforated surface with the use of government food contact approved adhesive.^[25] It is then bulk packed in cartons and returned to the refrigerator or freezer to await shipment.^[18]

Nutrition

Tempeh is 60% water, 20% protein, 8% carbohydrates, and 11% fats (table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), tempeh supplies 192 calories, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of several B vitamins and dietary minerals, such as riboflavin (30% DV) and manganese (62% DV), respectively (table).

Effects of fermentation

The soy carbohydrates in tempeh become more digestible as a result of the fermentation process. In particular, the oligosaccharides associated with flatulence and indigestion are greatly reduced by the Rhizopus culture. In traditional tempeh-making shops, the starter culture often contains bacteria that produce vitamins such as B₁₂^[28]^[29] (though it is uncertain whether this B₁₂ is always present and bioavailable).^[30]

In western countries, it is more common to use a pure culture containing only Rhizopus oligosporus, which makes little B₁₂ and could be missing Citrobacter freundii and Klebsiella pneumoniae, which have been shown to produce significant levels of B₁₂ analogs in tempeh when present.^[31]

Studies of fortifying tempeh with vitamin B12 through fermentation using microorganisms indicate that lactic acid bacteria and propionic acid bacteria produce vitamin B12.^[32]

Preparation

In the kitchen, tempeh is often simply prepared by cutting it into pieces, soaking in brine or a salty sauce, and then fried. In Java, tempeh is often traditionally prepared by cutting it into pieces, marinating it in a mixture of ground garlic, coriander, turmeric, salt and water; then deep fried,^[33] and it's often served with sambal ulek chili paste. Cooked tempeh can be eaten alone, or used in chili, stir fries, soups, salads, sandwiches, and stews. Tempeh's complex flavor has been described as nutty, meaty, and mushroom-like. It freezes well, and is now commonly available in many western supermarkets, as well as in ethnic markets and health food stores. Tempeh can be steamed, marinated, thinly sliced, blackened, or crumbled into sauces and stews.^[34]

Tempeh performs well in a cheese grater, after which it may be used in place of ground beef (as in tacos). When thin-sliced and deep-fried in oil, tempeh obtains a crisp golden crust while maintaining a soft interior. Its sponge-like consistency makes it suitable for marinating. Dried tempeh (whether cooked or raw) is more portable and less perishable and may be used as a stew base. Sometimes when tempeh is diced and left, it will create white feathery fluff which bonds the cut—this is the Rhizopus mold still growing—this is normal and perfectly edible.^{[citation needed]}

Types

The most common and widely known tempeh is made from fermented soybeans, called tempeh kedele or tempeh dele, made from controlled fermentation of soybeans. However, traditionally other ingredients such as ampas tahu (tofu dregs/okara), ampas kelapa (coconut dregs) and peanuts may be used in a fashion similar to the tempeh-making process, although perhaps using different fungi or attracting other microbes like kara benguk or kara pedhang, which can be toxic if not prepared correctly. A related product to tempeh is oncom, which is made from peanut press cake or soy dregs and is prevalent in Sundanese culture in West Java. There are two types of oncom: a bright red-orange kind with Neurospora sitophila, and a black one with the same fungi as tempeh uses.^[35]

Tempeh can also be differentiated according to its degrees of maturity (i.e. the mycelium's growth/age). Tempe mondhol is a tempeh that is not fully fermented, that is, the mycelium has not fully covered the surface. The taste of the beans is more solid and profound. Sometimes tempeh is left to ferment further, creating more pungent varieties: tempe wayu (day-old tempeh), i.e. when the tempeh starts to age; tempe semangit (a few-days old tempeh), i.e. when the tempeh becomes yellowish, a bit slimy, and the smell becomes more potent;^[36] and tempe bosok (lit. 'rotten tempeh'), when the mycelium has acquired a blackened coloration and the product has a putrid smell.

Some types of tempeh are made of ingredients that would be otherwise wasted if not used. According to traditional Javanese customs, wasting food is deemed as a sign of disrespect to Nature and other beings, and encourages efforts to use every part of an ingredient.

The wrappings used in tempeh making can contribute to its flavor and aroma. Though some prefer the traditional banana, waru or teak leaf, readily available plastic sheet wrappings have been increasingly widely used.

Tempe gembus

Soft and fluffy tempeh made from soy pulp or tofu dregs.^[37]^[38] Tempe gembus usually can be found in traditional markets of Java, at a price lower than that of common soybean tempeh. It is made into a variety of dishes; for example it can be battered and/or fried, used in sayur lodeh, or tempe bacem. Tempe gembus is known by different names across Java; for example as tahu cokol or tahu susur in Temanggung.^[37]

Tempe semangit

In Indonesia, ripe tempeh (two or more days old) is considered a delicacy. Names include tempe semangit ('stinky tempeh') in Java, hampir busuk ('almost rotten') tempeh or tempe kemarin ('yesterday tempeh'). Having a slightly pungent aroma, small amounts are used as a flavoring agent in traditional Javanese sayur lodeh vegetable stew and sambal tumpang.^[36]

Tempe gódhóng

In Javanese, the term gódhóng means 'leaf'.^[39] Traditionally tempeh is wrapped in organic banana leaf, gódhóng waru (Hibiscus tiliaceus leaf) or gódhóng jati (teak leaf).^[40]

Tempe murni

Pure soybean cake, tempeh made in plastic wrap without any fillings or additives such as grated raw papaya. This was meant to create a more "hygienic and pure" tempeh free from any impurities or unwanted microbes.^{[citation needed]}

Tempe menjes kacang

A specialty of Malang, the rough-textured tempeh menjes kacang is made from black soybeans mixed with other ingredients, such as peanut dregs, cassava fiber, and soybean meal. The process of making menjes kacang is quite similar to black oncom.^[41]

Tempe bongkrèk

Tempe bongkrèk is a variety of tempeh from Central Java, notably Banyumas. It is prepared with coconut dregs. This type of tempeh served as a main source of protein in Java due to its inexpensiveness and has led to several cases of fatal food poisoning,^[42] as it occasionally gets contaminated with the bacterium Burkholderia gladioli, and the unwanted organism produces toxins (bongkrek acid and toxoflavin) from the coconut, besides killing off the Rhizopus fungus due to the antibiotic activity of bongkrek acid.^[38]

Fatalities from contaminated tempe bongkrèk were once common in the area where it was produced.^[43] During 1930s, Indonesian government went through an economic depression, and this condition caused some of the people to make tempe bongkrek by themselves, instead of buying it directly from well-trained producers. As a result, the poisonings occurred frequently, reaching 10 to 12 a year. Dutch scientists W. K. Mertens and A. G. van Veen from the Eijkman Institute of Jakarta, started to find the cause of the poisoning in the early 1930s. The first outbreak of the bongkrek poisoning by tempe bongkrek was recorded by Dutch researchers; however, no further research to find the cause of the poisoning was conducted in 1895.^[44] They successfully identified the source of poisoning as a bacterium called Pseudomonas cocovenenans.^[44]^[45] This bacterium, which is also named Burkholderia cocovenenans, caused the synthesis of a poisonous substance called bongkrek acid. B. cocovenenans is commonly found in plants and soil, which can be taken up by coconuts and corn, leading to the synthesis of bongkrek acid during the fermentation of such foods.^[44] Since 1975, consumption of contaminated tempe bongkrek has caused more than 3000 cases of bongkrek acid poisoning.^[46] In Indonesia, the overall reported mortality rate has turned out to be 60%. Due to the severity of the situation, the production of tempe bongkrek has been banned since 1988.^[46]^[44] Clandestine manufacture continues, however, due to the popular flavor. The problem of contamination is not encountered with bean and grain tempeh, which have a different composition of fatty acids that is not favorable for the growth of B. gladioli, but encourages growth of Rhizopus instead. When bean or grain tempeh has the proper color, texture and smell, it is a very strong indication the product is safe. Yellow tempe bongkrèk is always highly toxic due to toxoflavin, but tempe bongkrèk with a normal coloration may still contain lethal amounts of bongkrek acid.^[47]

Oat tempeh

A form of tempeh based on barley and oats instead of soy was developed by scientists at the Swedish Department of Food Science in 2008. It can be produced in climatic regions where it is not possible to grow soybeans.^[48]

Cooking methods and recipes

The simplest way to cook tempeh is by frying. It is both deep-fried and stir-fried. However, there are several cooking methods and recipe variations. Among others are:

Tempe goreng

Perhaps the simplest and most popular way to prepare tempeh in Indonesia. The tempeh is sliced and seasoned in a mixture of ground garlic, coriander seeds and salt, and then deep fried in palm oil.^[49] The tempeh might be coated in batter prior to frying, or directly fried without any batter. Fried unbattered tempeh has a golden-brown color when done.

Tempe bacem

Tempe bacem is a traditional Javanese dish originating in Central Java. Bacem is a Javanese cooking method of braising in spices and palm sugar and boiling the food in a closed place until the water runs out.^[50] The tempeh is first braised in a mixture of coconut water, palm sugar, and spices including coriander seeds, shallots, galangal, and bay leaves, and then briefly deep-fried. The result is a moist, sweet and spicy, dark-colored tempeh. Tofu may also be used, yielding tahu bacem.^[51]

Tempe mendoan

This variation is often found in Purwokerto. The word mendoan originates in the Banyumas regional dialect, and means 'flash-fried'. The tempeh is first dipped in spiced flour before quickly frying in very hot oil, resulting in a product that is cooked on the outside, but raw or only partially so on the inside. It has a limp, soft texture compared to the more common, crisp, fully fried tempeh.

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v t e Coconut
Production	Brazil India Indonesia Kerala Mexico Niue Philippines Sri Lanka Thailand Vietnam
Products	Butter Cadjan Coir Copra Cream of coconut Jam Coconut cup Coco chocolatero Jewelry Latík Macapuno Milk Milk beverage Nata de coco Oil Powder Skim milk Sprouted coconut Sugar Tempe bongkrèk Timber Vinegar Water Wine (Arrack)
Dishes	List of coconut dishes List of dishes made using coconut milk
Diseases	Sago worm Bipolaris incurvata Botryosphaeria cocogena Bursaphelenchus cocophilus Cadang-cadang Capnodium footii Cephaleuros virescens Corticium penicillatum Cytospora palmarum Marasmiellus cocophilus Periconiella cocoes Pestalotiopsis palmarum Phaeochoropsis mucosa Phyllosticta palmetto Phytophthora palmivora Pseudoepicoccum cocos Ramularia necator Stigmina palmivora
Organizations	Asian and Pacific Coconut Community Coconut Development Board Franklin Baker Company KERAFED Philippine Coconut Authority
Culture	August Engelhardt Coconut Palace Coconut pearl Coconut Religion Hainuwele World Coconut Day "You think you just fell out of a coconut tree?"
Category

Etymology

History

Debate over origins

Production

Dry matter losses and yield

Determining quality

Packaging

Nutrition

Effects of fermentation

Preparation

Types

Tempe gembus

Tempe semangit

Tempe gódhóng

Tempe murni

Tempe menjes kacang

Tempe bongkrèk

Oat tempeh

Cooking methods and recipes

Tempe goreng

Tempe bacem

Tempe mendoan

Tempe kering

Tempe orek or orak-arik tempe

Tumis tempe or oseng tempe

Tempe penyet

Tempe satay

Kripik tempe

Tempeh sandwich or tempeh burger

Preservation

Antimicrobial agents

Non-refrigerated fresh tempeh

Refrigeration

Freezing

Blanching

Dehydration

Air tray drying

Sun drying

Freeze-drying

Spray-drying

Deep-frying

See also

References